Neurodevelopmental Disorders, Academic Failure, and the Development of Self-Concept and Psychopathology: A Study from Northwest Nigeria

Authors

  • Abdullahi AY Author
  • Muhammad SB Author
  • Mivanyi MM Author
  • Ahmad AH Author
  • Ijeoma CCU Author
  • Audu IA Author
  • Yakasai BA Author

Keywords:

Academic Failure, Adolescents, Depression, Learned Helplessness, Neurodevelopmental Disorders, Self- Concept

Abstract

Children with neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs) are at heightened risk for academic failure, which may have cascading effects on psychological development, particularly in low-resource settings. This study examined the relationships between NDDs, academic setbacks, self-concept, learned helplessness, and mood disorders among adolescents in Kaduna, Nigeria. A cross-sectional design was employed with a sample of 500 adolescents (aged 12-18) recruited from mainstream and special education schools. Participants were assessed for NDDs (using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire and clinical interview), academic history, self-concept (Piers-Harris 2), learned helplessness (Adapted Learned Helplessness Scale), and symptoms of mood disorders (PHQ-9 & GAD-7). Data were analysed using descriptive statistics, chi-square tests, Pearson's correlations, and hierarchical multiple regression. A total of 112 participants (22.4%) screened positive for a likely NDD. Adolescents with NDDs reported significantly higher rates of repeated academic failure (68.8% vs. 31.2%, χ²=58.34, p<.001), lower self-concept (M=42.1, SD=9.8 vs. M=55.6, SD=8.2, t=12.77, p<.001), higher learned helplessness (M=28.3, SD=6.5 vs. M=18.9, SD=5.1, t=14.22, p<.001), and
greater symptoms of depression and anxiety (p<.001). Academic failure significantly mediated the relationship betweenNDD status and negative psychological outcomes. Repeated academic setbacks significantly contribute to diminished self-concept, learned helplessness, and mood disorder symptoms in adolescents with NDDs in this Nigerian context. Findings underscore the urgent need for inclusive educational interventions and integrated school-based mental health support in sub-Saharan Africa.

Author Biographies

  • Abdullahi AY

    Department of Psychiatry, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria

  • Muhammad SB

    Department of Psychiatry, Ahmadu Bello University Teaching Hospital, Zaria Nigeria

  • Mivanyi MM

    Department of Child and Adolescent Mental Health Services, Lincolnshire Partnership NHS Foundation Trust (LPFT), Galaxy Suite, Boston
    Archway Centre, United Kingdom

  • Ahmad AH

    Adult Learning Disabilities, North Tees, Esk and Wear Valleys NHS Foundation Trust, Wessex House, Falcon Ct, Stockton-on-Tees, TS183TX, United Kingdom

  • Ijeoma CCU

    Department of Clinical Services, Federal Neuropsychiatric Hospital, Enugu, Nigeria

  • Audu IA

    Department of Psychiatry, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria

  • Yakasai BA

    Department of Psychiatry, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria

References

1. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. 5th ed. Arlington (VA): American Psychiatric Publishing; 2013 [cited 2026 Jan 29]. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596

2. Boyle CA, Boulet S, Schieve LA, Cohen RA, Blumberg SJ, Yeargin-Allsopp M, et al. Trends in the prevalence of developmental disabilities in US children, 1997-2008. Pediatrics. 2011;127(6):1034-42.

3. Bakare MO. Attention deficit hyperactivity symptoms and disorder (ADHD) among African children: a review of epidemiology and co-morbidities. Afr J Psychiatry. 2012;15(5):358-61.

4. Franz L, Adewumi K, Chambers N, Viljoen M, Baumgartner JN, de Vries PJ. Providing early detection and early intervention for autism spectrum disorder in South Africa: stakeholder perspectives from the Western Cape province. J Child Adolesc Ment Health. 2018;30(3):149-65.

5. DuPaul GJ, Chronis-Tuscano A, Danielson ML, Visser SN. Predictors of receipt of school services in a national sample of youth with ADHD. J Atten Disord. 2019;23(11):1303-19.

6. Jendreizik LT, Hautmann C, von Wirth E, Dose C, Thöne AK, Treier AK, et al. The importance of familial risk factors in children with ADHD: direct and indirect effects of family adversity, parental psychopathology and parenting practices on externalizing symptoms. Child Adolesc Psychiatry Ment Health. 2022;16(1):96.

7. Monroe SM, Simons AD. Diathesis-stress theories in the context of life stress research: implications for the depressive disorders. Psychol Bull. 1991;110(3):406-25.

8. Harter S. The construction of the self: a developmental perspective. New York: Guilford Press; 1999. 413 p.

9. Seligman ME. Learned helplessness. Annu Rev Med. 1972;23(1):407-12.

10. Nolen-Hoeksema S, Girgus JS, Seligman ME. Predictors and consequences of childhood depressive symptoms: a 5-year longitudinal study. J Abnorm Psychol. 1992;101(3):405-22.

11. Obidigbo GC. The relationship between self-concept and academic performance of Nigerian students. IFE PsychologIA. 2002;10(2):20-7.

12. Omigbodun O. Developing child mental health services in resource-poor countries. Int Rev Psychiatry. 2008;20(3):225-35.

13. Hayden-Evans M, Afsharnejad B, Lee EAL, Milbourn B, Picen T, Johnson M, et al. "I made friends a lot more easily": children and families' experiences of social group programs for children on the autism spectrum. BMC Pediatr. 2025;25(1):353.

14. Naing L, Winn T, Rusli BN. Practical issues in calculating the sample size for prevalence studies. Arch Orofac Sci. 2006;1:9-14.

15. Oyedeji GA. Socio-economic and cultural background of hospitalised children in Ilesa. Niger J Paediatr. 1985;12(4):111-7.

16. Goodman R. The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire: a research note. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 1997;38(5):581-6.

17. Katus L, Olalekan BD, Oyekola AO. Closing the measurement gap for adolescent mental health: validating the SDQ in Nigeria. J Child Adolesc Ment Health. 2025;1-15.

18. Piers EV, Harris DB, Herzberg DS. Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale. 2nd ed. Los Angeles (CA): Western Psychological Services; 2002.

19. Quinless FW, Nelson MA. Development of a measure of learned helplessness. Nurs Res. 1988;37(1):11-5.

20. Esomonu NMP, Agbedo OJ. Development and standardization of learned helplessness scale for secondary school students. UNIZIK J Educ Res Policy Stud. 2025;19(3).

21. Kroenke K, Spitzer RL, Williams JB. The PHQ-9: validity of a brief depression severity measure. J Gen Intern Med. 2001;16(9):606-13.

22. Spitzer RL, Kroenke K, Williams JB, Löwe B. A brief measure for assessing generalized anxiety disorder: the GAD-7. Arch Intern Med. 2006;166(10):1092-7.

23. Adewuya AO, Ola BA, Afolabi OO. Validity of the patient health questionnaire (PHQ-9) as a screening tool for depression amongst Nigerian university students. J Affect Disord. 2006;96(1-2):89-93.

24. Olaluwoye O, Onofa L, Sowunmi O. Psychometric properties of the 7-item Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD-7) in Nigerian pregnant women attending primary health care. BJPsych Open. 2023;9(Suppl 1):S65-6.

25. Baron RM, Kenny DA. The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. J Pers Soc Psychol. 1986;51(6):1173-82.

26. Polanczyk GV, Salum GA, Sugaya LS, Caye A, Rohde LA. Annual research review: a meta-analysis of the worldwide prevalence of mental disorders in children and adolescents. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2015;56(3):345-65.

27. Abramson LY, Metalsky GI, Alloy LB. Hopelessness depression: a theory-based subtype of depression. Psychol Rev. 1989;96(2):358-72.

28. Angold A, Costello EJ, Erkanli A. Comorbidity. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 1999;40(1):57-87.

Downloads

Published

2026-09-30

Issue

Vol. 7 No. 3 (2026): Serum Neutrophil Gelatinase-Associated Lipocalin and Estimated Glomerular Filtration Rate in Patients with Sickle Cell Disease

Section

Articles